Pro-Government Militias
Special Police Officers (SPO) (India)
Basic Group Information
| Name assigned by coder: | no |
| PGM ID Number: | 612 |
| Country: | India |
| Date formed: | Jan. 1, 1990 |
| Accuracy of date formed: | year |
| Details of Formation: | SPOs are organized on the state level. Jammu and Kashmir was the first state to deploy them in 1990. The state provides basic training and a small payment but SPOs are on their own afterwards - resembling a village defence force. |
| Date dissolved: | Unknown |
| Accuracy of date dissolved: | day |
| Details of Termination: | It is reported that Kashmir and Jammu terminated the SPOs in 2008, and Chhattisgarh was ordered to do so by the Supreme Court in 2011, but avoided this by amending legislation. The group is still active in 2014. |
| Termination Type(s): | not terminated |
Former and Successor Group Information
| Predecessor group(s): | none |
| Successor group(s): | none |
| Private Military Company? | no |
| Former Group? | no |
| Former Armed Group? | no |
| Former Rebel Group? | no |
| Former Rebel Group UCDP ID: | none |
| PGM Becomes Rebel Group? | no |
| Successor Rebel Group UCDP ID: | none |
Government Relation, Support, and Training
| Government Relation: | semi-official (type 2) |
| Created by the Government?: | yes | Main Creating Government Institution: | subnational government |
| Government Link(s): | sub-national government |
| If link to party, name of party: | None |
| Training and Equipment: | yes |
| Shared Information and Joint Operations: | yes |
| Shared Personnel: | no |
| Type(s) of Material Support: | domestic government |
| State Sponsor(s): | none |
| Other Connection(s): | In Chhattisgarh, the group was closely connected to Salwa Judum which recruited people as SPOs. |
Group Characteristics
| Membership: | village/rural; adolescents |
| Primary Membership: | local |
| Alternative Primary Membership: | no information |
| Location: | Jammu and Kashmir, Chhattisgarh, Manipur, Punjab |
| Force Strength: | [5248, 15000] |
| Target(s): | rebels, insurgents, or other armed group |
| Purpose(s): | self-defense and security; fight insurgents |
Ethnic Characteristics
| Ethnic Target(s): | none |
| Quality of Information for Ethnic Targeting: | not applicable |
| Ethnic Membership: | none |
| Quality of Information for Ethnic Membership: | not applicable |
| Ethnic Purpose: | none |
| Quality of Information for Ethnic Purpose: | not applicable |
Other Information
| Other Information: | In Chhattisgarh and Manipur members are mostly recruited from tribal groups. In Chhattisgarh, the Supreme Court declared it unconstitutional to use SPOs to fight Naxals. However, SPOs are still active in Chhattisgarh as the state government simply rechristened the group as auxiliary constables. |
New Variables from Meta-Analysis
Purpose
| Purpose: | The main goal of the group is to provide security, protect the population from rebel attacks and counter insurgents. Targets of the group varied in different regions, e.g. Naxalites in Chhattisgarh, terrorist groups in Manipur, and Maoist groups more broadly. It ran and guarded camps, gathered information and assisted the police. |
| Relative Benefit(s) of PGM Use | cheaper mobilization |
Treatment of Civilians
| Treatment of Civilians: | The PGM has been accused of killing, injuring and extorting civilians, as well as human rights abuses more generally. It is reported that the group recruited children. |
| Type(s) of Violence against Civilians: | killing |
Reasons for Membership
| PGM Members Coerced? | yes |
| PGM Members Paid? | yes |
| Reasons for Membership: | It is reported that the salary is a primary incentive for villagers to join the group, as well as career prospects in the regular police. |
| PGM Members Killed? | sometimes |
PGM Size
| Size: |
Weapons and Training
| Weapons and Training: | The government provides training as well as weapons to the group. According to a report, training lasts less than a month and includes instructions on setting up an ambush, the use of weapons and physical exercise. |
Organisation
| Organisation: | The group is formally controlled by the official police, but it seems to operate largely autonomously. While it does assist in police operations, the PGM is not part of the regular police. The group seems to have a link to Salwa Judum. |
Reference(s) for Meta-Analysis
Evidence
- Examine the evidence for this coding.