Pro-Government Militias

Pro-Government Militia Website

Zulus / Zoulous (Congo Brazzaville)

Basic Group Information

Name assigned by coder: no
PGM ID Number: 58
Country: Congo Brazzaville
Date formed: Jan. 1, 1994
    Accuracy of date formed: year
Details of Formation: In May 1993, Lissouba won presidential elections. After the opposition began setting up their own militias, Lissouba put together the Zulus.
Date dissolved: Oct. 24, 1997
    Accuracy of date dissolved: month
Details of Termination: In 1995, a peace pact between the Lissouba and the Nguesso camp was signed, but the Zulus and other militias were not effectively disarmed. The Zulus ceased to be a PGM in 1997 when Lissouba was ousted from power.
Termination Type(s): change in government

Former and Successor Group Information

Predecessor group(s): none
Successor group(s): none
Private Military Company? no
Former Group? no
    Former Armed Group? no
Former Rebel Group? no
    Former Rebel Group UCDP ID: none
PGM Becomes Rebel Group? yes
    Successor Rebel Group UCDP ID: 547

Government Relation, Support, and Training

Government Relation: informal (type 1)
Created by the Government?: yes
    Main Creating Government Institution: person/minister
Government Link(s): person/minister; political party
    If link to party, name of party: Pan-African Union for Social Democracy (UPADS)
Training and Equipment: no information
Shared Information and Joint Operations: yes
Shared Personnel: no information
Type(s) of Material Support: domestic government; foreign support
State Sponsor(s): Israel
Other Connection(s):

Group Characteristics

Membership: ethnic; unemployed; adolescents; children
Primary Membership: ethnic
Alternative Primary Membership: no information
Location: Brazzaville, Aubevillet, Loudima
Force Strength: [unknown, 2500]
Target(s): rebels, insurgents, or other armed group; ethnic group
Purpose(s): protect state, national or religious leader(s)

Ethnic Characteristics

Ethnic Target(s): Mbochi (proper) (Congo); Lari/Bakongo (Congo)
    Quality of Information for Ethnic Targeting: inferred
Ethnic Membership: Nibolek (Bembe etc.) (Congo)
    Quality of Information for Ethnic Membership: inferred
Ethnic Purpose: none
    Quality of Information for Ethnic Purpose: not applicable

Other Information

Other Information: Fight the militias of Lissouba's two rivals: his Prime Minister Kolelas and former President Nguesso. The respective militias took on ethnic shades and turned Brazzaville into a war zone. AKA Zoulous. Nibolek: in power according to EPR until 1997 under President Lissouba, who is responsible for the Zulus and became powerless from 1998 on (see additional source). Zulus fight for Lissouba (Nibolek) and against Kolela (Lari/Bakongo) in 1994. After agreement in 1995, Zulus fight against Sassou-Nguesso (Mbochi).

New Variables from Meta-Analysis

Purpose

Purpose: Lissouba created the militia to protect his position and to fight against anti-government militias.
Relative Benefit(s) of PGM Use unknown

Treatment of Civilians

Treatment of Civilians: Militia members looted houses of alleged opposition members (Bazenguissa-Ganga 1999, 48).
Type(s) of Violence against Civilians: unknown

Reasons for Membership

PGM Members Coerced? yes
PGM Members Paid? no information
Reasons for Membership: Members of the militia were of Bembe ethnicity and joined due to ethnic loyalty. However, also unemployed young men were forced to join the militia and were promised economic rewards. (Themnér 2011, 71)
PGM Members Killed? no information

PGM Size

Size: In 1996, 2,500 Zulu members were integrated into the regular armed forces.

Weapons and Training

Weapons and Training: The militia was reported to have a stock of weapons in their training camps and members were reported to use automatic rifles. In addition, the militia was advised and trained by Israeli, South African and British military personnel.

Organisation

Organisation: The militia was created by former President Lissouba, but there is no information on the command structures. The militia operated in a decentralized manner with mid-level commanders. (Themnér 2011, 72)

Reference(s) for Meta-Analysis

Bazenguissa-Ganga, Rémy. 1999. "The spread of political violence in Congo-Brazzaville." African Affairs 98(390): 37-54.

Themnér, Anders. 2011. Violence in post-conflict societies: Remarginalization, remobilizers and relationships. London: Routledge.

Evidence