Zulus / Zoulous (Congo Brazzaville)
Basic Group Information
| Name assigned by coder: |
no
|
| PGM ID Number: |
58
|
| Country: |
Congo Brazzaville |
| Date formed: |
Jan. 1, 1994 |
| Accuracy of date formed: |
year
|
| Details of Formation: |
In May 1993, Lissouba won presidential elections. After the opposition began setting up their own militias, Lissouba put together the Zulus. |
| Date dissolved: |
Oct. 24, 1997 |
| Accuracy of date dissolved: |
month
|
| Details of Termination: |
In 1995, a peace pact between the Lissouba and the Nguesso camp was signed, but the Zulus and other militias were not effectively disarmed. The Zulus ceased to be a PGM in 1997 when Lissouba was ousted from power. |
| Termination Type(s): |
change in government
|
Former and Successor Group Information
| Predecessor group(s): |
none
|
| Successor group(s): |
none
|
| Private Military Company? |
no |
| Former Group? |
no |
| Former Armed Group? |
no |
| Former Rebel Group? |
no |
| Former Rebel Group UCDP ID: |
none |
| PGM Becomes Rebel Group? |
yes |
| Successor Rebel Group UCDP ID: |
547 |
Government Relation, Support, and Training
| Government Relation: |
informal (type 1) |
| Created by the Government?: |
yes |
Main Creating Government Institution: |
person/minister
|
| Government Link(s): |
person/minister; political party
|
| If link to party, name of party: |
Pan-African Union for Social Democracy (UPADS) |
| Training and Equipment: |
no information |
| Shared Information and Joint Operations: |
yes |
| Shared Personnel: |
no information |
| Type(s) of Material Support: |
domestic government; foreign support
|
| State Sponsor(s): |
Israel
|
| Other Connection(s): |
|
Group Characteristics
Ethnic Characteristics
Other Information
| Other Information: |
Fight the militias of Lissouba's two rivals: his Prime Minister Kolelas and former President Nguesso. The respective militias took on ethnic shades and turned Brazzaville into a war zone.
AKA Zoulous.
Nibolek: in power according to EPR until 1997 under President Lissouba, who is responsible for the Zulus and became powerless from 1998 on (see additional source). Zulus fight for Lissouba (Nibolek) and against Kolela (Lari/Bakongo) in 1994. After agreement in 1995, Zulus fight against Sassou-Nguesso (Mbochi). |
New Variables from Meta-Analysis
Purpose
| Purpose: |
Lissouba created the militia to protect his position and to fight against anti-government militias. |
| Relative Benefit(s) of PGM Use |
unknown
|
Treatment of Civilians
| Treatment of Civilians: |
Militia members looted houses of alleged opposition members (Bazenguissa-Ganga 1999, 48). |
| Type(s) of Violence against Civilians: |
unknown
|
Reasons for Membership
| PGM Members Coerced? |
yes |
| PGM Members Paid? |
no information |
| Reasons for Membership: |
Members of the militia were of Bembe ethnicity and joined due to ethnic loyalty. However, also unemployed young men were forced to join the militia and were promised economic rewards. (Themnér 2011, 71) |
| PGM Members Killed? |
no information |
PGM Size
| Size: |
In 1996, 2,500 Zulu members were integrated into the regular armed forces. |
Weapons and Training
| Weapons and Training: |
The militia was reported to have a stock of weapons in their training camps and members were reported to use automatic rifles. In addition, the militia was advised and trained by Israeli, South African and British military personnel. |
Organisation
| Organisation: |
The militia was created by former President Lissouba, but there is no information on the command structures. The militia operated in a decentralized manner with mid-level commanders. (Themnér 2011, 72) |
Reference(s) for Meta-Analysis
Bazenguissa-Ganga, Rémy. 1999. "The spread of political violence in Congo-Brazzaville." African Affairs 98(390): 37-54.
Themnér, Anders. 2011. Violence in post-conflict societies: Remarginalization, remobilizers and relationships. London: Routledge.
Evidence
