Pro-Government Militias

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Beli Orlovi (White Eagles) (Yugoslavia)

Basic Group Information

Name assigned by coder: yes
PGM ID Number: 385
Country: Yugoslavia
Date formed: May 11, 1991
    Accuracy of date formed: year
Details of Formation: Serbian nationalists formed armed volunteer groups, including the White Eagles, in 1991.
Date dissolved: Oct. 8, 2000
    Accuracy of date dissolved: day
Details of Termination: There is no direct termination evidence, but the last reported evidence of the White Eagles dates from when they were pulled out of Kosovo in June 1999. The White Eagles were linked to the Milosevic government; after Kostunica took over power, there is no more evidence about the White Eagles.
Termination Type(s): change in government

Former and Successor Group Information

Predecessor group(s): none
Successor group(s): none
Private Military Company? no
Former Group? no
    Former Armed Group? no
Former Rebel Group? no information
    Former Rebel Group UCDP ID: none
PGM Becomes Rebel Group? no information
    Successor Rebel Group UCDP ID: none

Government Relation, Support, and Training

Government Relation: informal (type 1)
Created by the Government?: no information
    Main Creating Government Institution: none
Government Link(s): political party; military (institution)
    If link to party, name of party: Serbian National Renaissance [Srpska narodna obnova, SNO]
Training and Equipment: no information
Shared Information and Joint Operations: yes
Shared Personnel: no information
Type(s) of Material Support: plunder and loot
State Sponsor(s): none
Other Connection(s):

Group Characteristics

Membership: ethnic; adolescents; party activists
Primary Membership: nationalist
Alternative Primary Membership: no information
Location: None
Force Strength: [500, 30000]
Target(s): civilians; ethnic group; aid workers; religious group; journalists
Purpose(s): protect national borders and integrity; intimidation of ethnic/religious groups; destabilise neighbouring countries

Ethnic Characteristics

Ethnic Target(s): Croats (Yugoslavia); Bosniaks/Muslims (Yugoslavia)
    Quality of Information for Ethnic Targeting: given
Ethnic Membership: Serbs (Yugoslavia)
    Quality of Information for Ethnic Membership: given
Ethnic Purpose: Croats (Yugoslavia); Bosniaks/Muslims (Yugoslavia)
    Quality of Information for Ethnic Purpose: given

Other Information

Other Information: In Yugoslavia, the main purpose of the White Eagles was to intimidate political opposition and critical media. They were used in destabilizing actions in Bosnia and Croatia.

New Variables from Meta-Analysis

Purpose

Purpose:
Relative Benefit(s) of PGM Use unknown

Treatment of Civilians

Treatment of Civilians: The White Eagles killed civilians in Croatia (ICTY 2002) and committed murder, looting, robbery, burning villages, rapes and forcibly taking people away in the Republic of Srpska, part of Bosnia and Herzegowina (ICTY 2009). The Yugoslav Serb government jailed many White Eagles after they committed crimes in Bosnia so that they could not testify to international tribunals about war crimes. According to one news source, the White Eagles were reported to have been responsible for many foul jobs in Kosovo, which must have been committed with their leader’s blessing or direct participation.
Type(s) of Violence against Civilians: kidnapping/abductions; killing; sexual violence

Reasons for Membership

PGM Members Coerced? no
PGM Members Paid? no information
Reasons for Membership:
PGM Members Killed? no information

PGM Size

Size: In October 1991, there were around 300-600 White Eagles in Vocin, in Croatia (ICTY 2002). A news source from 1992 estimates that there were around 30,000 Serb White Eagles. Another news source from 1999 reports that NATO estimated around 500 White Eagles in Kosovo.

Weapons and Training

Weapons and Training: The White Eagles had automatic rifles. According to some evidence, the JNA left weapons and equipment behind for the PGM when they withdrew. (ICTY 2009)

Organisation

Organisation: There is some ambiguity in sources, as some evidence suggests that the White Eagles were protected by the JNA, while others point to a link with the police force. Likewise there are many accounts of who their leader was. Sources mention that Milan Lukic was the leader, but others mention Veselin Vucelja, Dejan Jeftić, or a man named Charlie (ICTY 2009). The White eagles were the youth organisation of the Serbian National Renaissance (SNO). All volunteer units of the PGM are under the JNA command. One news source says that if he wanted, Milosevic could halt the White Eagles’ activities with a wink.

Reference(s) for Meta-Analysis

International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. 2002. Testimony of Djuro Matovina. http://www.icty.org/x/cases/slobodan_milosevic/trans/en/021007IT.htm

International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. “PROSECUTOR v. MILAN LUKIĆ and SREDOJE LUKIĆ.“ Case No. IT-98-32/1-T. 2009, July 20. www.icty.org/x/cases/milan_lukic_sredoje_lukic/tjug/en/090720_j.pdf

Information was taken from news sources listed in the PGMD

Evidence