Pro-Government Militias
Front for the Advancement and Progress of Haiti (FRAPH) / Attaches / Zenglendons (Haiti)
Basic Group Information
| Name assigned by coder: | no |
| PGM ID Number: | 365 |
| Country: | Haiti |
| Date formed: | Aug. 1, 1993 |
| Accuracy of date formed: | month |
| Details of Formation: | After a military coup ousted democratically elected President Aristide in 1991, FRAPH emerged to prop up the military regime of General Cedras. It was often referred to as attaches or zenglendons (bandits) and was widely seen as latter day Tonton macoutes. The group was organized by Emmanuel “Toto” Constant in 1993 to counteract support for deposed president Aristide. Emmanuel Constant was on a CIA payroll at the time. The U.S government appears to have played a role in establishing and funding the group. |
| Date dissolved: | Oct. 15, 1994 |
| Accuracy of date dissolved: | day |
| Details of Termination: | The formation of paramilitary groups was banned in 1994 after President Aristide was returned to power by US troops. Aristide dissolved the army and introduced a civilian police force. |
| Termination Type(s): | change in government |
Former and Successor Group Information
| Predecessor group(s): | Tonton Macoutes Semi-official PGM / Volunteers for National Security |
| Successor group(s): | Civilian Vigilantes |
| Private Military Company? | no |
| Former Group? | yes |
| Former Armed Group? | yes |
| Former Rebel Group? | no information |
| Former Rebel Group UCDP ID: | none |
| PGM Becomes Rebel Group? | no information |
| Successor Rebel Group UCDP ID: | 765 |
Government Relation, Support, and Training
| Government Relation: | informal (type 1) |
| Created by the Government?: | no | Main Creating Government Institution: | none |
| Government Link(s): | state (institution); military (institution) |
| If link to party, name of party: | None |
| Training and Equipment: | unclear |
| Shared Information and Joint Operations: | yes |
| Shared Personnel: | yes |
| Type(s) of Material Support: | plunder and loot; military; crime |
| State Sponsor(s): | United States |
| Other Connection(s): |
Group Characteristics
| Membership: | no information |
| Primary Membership: | no information |
| Alternative Primary Membership: | no information |
| Location: | Nationwide |
| Force Strength: | [500, 300000] |
| Target(s): | civilians; unarmed political opposition, government critics |
| Purpose(s): | protect state, national or religious institutions; protect state, national or religious leader(s); intimidation of civilians |
Ethnic Characteristics
| Ethnic Target(s): | none |
| Quality of Information for Ethnic Targeting: | not applicable |
| Ethnic Membership: | none |
| Quality of Information for Ethnic Membership: | not applicable |
| Ethnic Purpose: | none |
| Quality of Information for Ethnic Purpose: | not applicable |
Other Information
| Other Information: | Members of the group include former Tonton macoutes. Due to its close ties to the official armed forces, the group was difficult to distinguish from the military and the police. The group received funding from the US, specifically the CIA, which was involved in its formation. |
New Variables from Meta-Analysis
Purpose
| Purpose: | The group was mainly used against Aristide supporters and to carry out the dirty work for the military, e.g. raids. |
| Relative Benefit(s) of PGM Use | unknown |
Treatment of Civilians
| Treatment of Civilians: | The group extorted the population and conducted raids in which they assassinated oppositional political leaders. They kidnapped, tortured and raped civilians and committed arson attacks. According to one report they are responsible for more than 3,000 deaths. |
| Type(s) of Violence against Civilians: | kidnapping/abductions; killing; torture; sexual violence |
Reasons for Membership
| PGM Members Coerced? | no |
| PGM Members Paid? | yes |
| Reasons for Membership: | Members were allowed to extort and rob the population, ran protection rackets and were involved in the trade of contraband goods. It is reported that members were paid to join, but another source states that people themselves paid to become members. |
| PGM Members Killed? | no information |
PGM Size
| Size: |
Weapons and Training
| Weapons and Training: | According to news sources the group was armed with shotguns and revolvers. |
Organisation
| Organisation: | According to reports, control over the group was mainly exercised by Colonel Francois and it was under the broader command of the military and the police. The group sometimes worked with the police and the army and received financial support from the army. |
Reference(s) for Meta-Analysis
Evidence
- Examine the evidence for this coding.