Pro-Government Militias
Tonton Macoutes Informal PGM (Haiti)
Basic Group Information
| Name assigned by coder: | no |
| PGM ID Number: | 363 |
| Country: | Haiti |
| Date formed: | Feb. 7, 1986 |
| Accuracy of date formed: | day |
| Details of Formation: | After being officially disbanded in 1986 by the government of Lieutenant-General Henri Namphy when Jean Claude (Baby Doc) Duvalier was ousted as President, the Tonton Macoutes re-emerged as a pro government armed group that propped up the various military regimes throughout the late 1980s and early 1990s. It was formally regrouped in 1994 in the face of a UN backed invasion to reinstall President Aristide. |
| Date dissolved: | Oct. 15, 1994 |
| Accuracy of date dissolved: | day |
| Details of Termination: | The Tonton Macoutes continued to operate in various forms until as late as 1994. In the latter years they were increasingly affiliated with other pro government groups such as FRAPH. The exact date of their termination as a group is difficult to ascertain as the term Tonton Macoutes came increasingly to mean any supporter of the ousted Duvalier regime. However, the group ceased to be PGM when Aristide returned to power in October 1994 and passed a law prohibiting paramilitary groups. This has been used as a proxy termination date. The group ended being pro-government 1991-02-07, then turned pro-government again 1991-09-30. |
| Termination Type(s): | change in government |
Former and Successor Group Information
| Predecessor group(s): | Tonton Macoutes Semi-official PGM / Volunteers for National Security |
| Successor group(s): | none |
| Private Military Company? | no |
| Former Group? | yes |
| Former Armed Group? | yes |
| Former Rebel Group? | no |
| Former Rebel Group UCDP ID: | none |
| PGM Becomes Rebel Group? | no information |
| Successor Rebel Group UCDP ID: | none |
Government Relation, Support, and Training
| Government Relation: | informal (type 1) |
| Created by the Government?: | yes | Main Creating Government Institution: | person/minister |
| Government Link(s): | person/minister; state (institution); military (institution) |
| If link to party, name of party: | None |
| Training and Equipment: | unclear |
| Shared Information and Joint Operations: | yes |
| Shared Personnel: | no |
| Type(s) of Material Support: | domestic government |
| State Sponsor(s): | none |
| Other Connection(s): |
Group Characteristics
| Membership: | criminals |
| Primary Membership: | noncivilian |
| Alternative Primary Membership: | no information |
| Location: | Nationwide |
| Force Strength: | [3000, 30000] |
| Target(s): | civilians; unarmed political opposition, government critics |
| Purpose(s): | protect state, national or religious leader(s); intimidation of civilians |
Ethnic Characteristics
| Ethnic Target(s): | none |
| Quality of Information for Ethnic Targeting: | not applicable |
| Ethnic Membership: | none |
| Quality of Information for Ethnic Membership: | not applicable |
| Ethnic Purpose: | none |
| Quality of Information for Ethnic Purpose: | not applicable |
Other Information
| Other Information: | Coded as created by government since the original Tonton (type 1) was created by Francois Duvalier. |
New Variables from Meta-Analysis
Purpose
| Purpose: | The group was used to counter political opponents, i.e. Aristide supporters, diminishing threats to the authority of the military and police. Another goal was to assist the army in combating foreign attacks. |
| Relative Benefit(s) of PGM Use | unknown |
Treatment of Civilians
| Treatment of Civilians: | The group prevented opposition protests by burning down houses and searching slums, targeting Aristide supporters. It disrupted one election in 1987. |
| Type(s) of Violence against Civilians: | unknown |
Reasons for Membership
| PGM Members Coerced? | no information |
| PGM Members Paid? | no information |
| Reasons for Membership: | |
| PGM Members Killed? | no information |
PGM Size
| Size: |
Weapons and Training
| Weapons and Training: |
Organisation
| Organisation: | The group worked together with the army and it was associated with the FRAPH, another PGM. |
Reference(s) for Meta-Analysis
Evidence
- Examine the evidence for this coding.