Pro-Government Militias
Tonton Macoutes Semi-official PGM / Volunteers for National Security (Haiti)
Basic Group Information
| Name assigned by coder: | no |
| PGM ID Number: | 362 |
| Country: | Haiti |
| Date formed: | July 1, 1958 |
| Accuracy of date formed: | month |
| Details of Formation: | The Tonton Macoutes were formed in July 1958 when a failed coup prompted Haitian President Francois Duvalier (Papa Doc) to create a black private security force to serve as a counterweight to the army, dominated by the mulatto class. On his death in 1971 his son Jean-Claude Duvalier (Baby Doc) inherited the Presidency and the militia, which he renamed the Volunteers for National Security. |
| Date dissolved: | Feb. 7, 1986 |
| Accuracy of date dissolved: | day |
| Details of Termination: | After Jean-Claude Duvalier fled into exile in 1986 the militia was officially disbanded by the provisional government under Lieutenant-General Henri Namphy, but were never disarmed and continued to operate for many years on a more informal basis (see Tonton Macoutes informal). |
| Termination Type(s): | change in government |
Former and Successor Group Information
| Predecessor group(s): | none |
| Successor group(s): | Tonton Macoutes Informal PGM , Front for the Advancement and Progress of Haiti (FRAPH) / Attaches / Zenglendons |
| Private Military Company? | no |
| Former Group? | no |
| Former Armed Group? | no |
| Former Rebel Group? | no |
| Former Rebel Group UCDP ID: | none |
| PGM Becomes Rebel Group? | yes |
| Successor Rebel Group UCDP ID: | 765 |
Government Relation, Support, and Training
| Government Relation: | semi-official (type 2) |
| Created by the Government?: | yes | Main Creating Government Institution: | person/minister |
| Government Link(s): | person/minister |
| If link to party, name of party: | None |
| Training and Equipment: | yes |
| Shared Information and Joint Operations: | yes |
| Shared Personnel: | no |
| Type(s) of Material Support: | domestic government; crime |
| State Sponsor(s): | none |
| Other Connection(s): |
Group Characteristics
| Membership: | ethnic; village/rural; urban |
| Primary Membership: | ethnic |
| Alternative Primary Membership: | no information |
| Location: | Nationwide |
| Force Strength: | [9000, 500000] |
| Target(s): | civilians; unarmed political opposition, government critics; religious group; journalists; peasants |
| Purpose(s): | protect state, national or religious leader(s); intelligence gathering; intimidation of civilians |
Ethnic Characteristics
| Ethnic Target(s): | none |
| Quality of Information for Ethnic Targeting: | not applicable |
| Ethnic Membership: | Haitians (Haiti) |
| Quality of Information for Ethnic Membership: | given |
| Ethnic Purpose: | none |
| Quality of Information for Ethnic Purpose: | not applicable |
Other Information
| Other Information: |
New Variables from Meta-Analysis
Purpose
| Purpose: | The original reason for establishing the group for Francois Duvalier was to serve as a counterbalance to the army. In addition, the group acted as a political/auxiliary police force for the Duvaliers and was used for intelligence gathering. It operated against a broad range of target groups, e.g. political opponents, reporters, or students. |
| Relative Benefit(s) of PGM Use | unknown |
Treatment of Civilians
| Treatment of Civilians: | The group was one of many that abused and exploited the population, e.g. via extortion or expropriations. It intimidated, killed and disappeared civilians, was accused of beating them and has generally been described as brutal. Overall, it is thought to be responsible for the deaths of more than 10,000 Haitians. |
| Type(s) of Violence against Civilians: | kidnapping/abductions; killing; beating |
Reasons for Membership
| PGM Members Coerced? | no information |
| PGM Members Paid? | yes |
| Reasons for Membership: | One incentive to join the group that is reported was avoiding persecution. In addition, members extorted the population, which is another possible motivation for membership. According to one source, some members were paid (those operating in the capital), while others were not (in the interior of the country). |
| PGM Members Killed? | no information |
PGM Size
| Size: |
Weapons and Training
| Weapons and Training: |
Organisation
| Organisation: | The group was mainly under the control of the Duvaliers (Francois and Jean-Claude). Regarding internal structure, there were two ranks within the group (commanders and volunteers). |
Reference(s) for Meta-Analysis
Evidence
- Examine the evidence for this coding.