Pro-Government Militias
Toposa Tribesmen (Sudan)
Basic Group Information
| Name assigned by coder: | no |
| PGM ID Number: | 282 |
| Country: | Sudan |
| Date formed: | June 28, 1988 |
| Accuracy of date formed: | year |
| Details of Formation: | In the 1980s, the Sudanese government started to arm ethnic/tribal militias. The first evidence of the Toposa being armed by the government dates from June 1988. |
| Date dissolved: | July 9, 2011 |
| Accuracy of date dissolved: | day |
| Details of Termination: | The level of activity of the Toposa declined sharply after 1992; there are almost no reports on the Toposa from 1992 until 2007. They are mentioned once in a military publication in 2001 which says that the Toposa are a pro-government irregular force (Human Rights Watch 2003). In 2007, they committed an armed attack against civilians (Human Rights Watch 2009) and that same year they are also considered a pro-government group by the Small Amrs Survey. News sources mention Toposa activity in 2008 and 2009. The date of termination is the date when South Sudan became independent from Sudan. As the group was mainly active in Southern Sudan and there are no reports about the group being active in Sudan after 2011, it ceases to exist as a domestic PGM on that day. |
| Termination Type(s): | border change |
Former and Successor Group Information
| Predecessor group(s): | none |
| Successor group(s): | none |
| Private Military Company? | no |
| Former Group? | yes |
| Former Armed Group? | unclear |
| Former Rebel Group? | no |
| Former Rebel Group UCDP ID: | none |
| PGM Becomes Rebel Group? | no |
| Successor Rebel Group UCDP ID: | none |
Government Relation, Support, and Training
| Government Relation: | informal (type 1) |
| Created by the Government?: | no | Main Creating Government Institution: | none |
| Government Link(s): | state (institution) |
| If link to party, name of party: | None |
| Training and Equipment: | yes |
| Shared Information and Joint Operations: | no |
| Shared Personnel: | no |
| Type(s) of Material Support: | domestic government; plunder and loot |
| State Sponsor(s): | none |
| Other Connection(s): |
Group Characteristics
| Membership: | ethnic |
| Primary Membership: | ethnic |
| Alternative Primary Membership: | no information |
| Location: | Southern Sudan (Central Equatoria, Eastern Equatoria) |
| Force Strength: | [unknown, unknown] |
| Target(s): | civilians; rebels, insurgents, or other armed group; ethnic group; aid workers; foreigners |
| Purpose(s): | self-defense and security; fight insurgents |
Ethnic Characteristics
| Ethnic Target(s): | Dinka (Sudan) |
| Quality of Information for Ethnic Targeting: | given |
| Ethnic Membership: | Other Southern groups (Sudan) |
| Quality of Information for Ethnic Membership: | inferred |
| Ethnic Purpose: | none |
| Quality of Information for Ethnic Purpose: | not applicable |
Other Information
| Other Information: | The Toposa are sometimes also called Taposa. They are a small southern ethnic group. The PGM is mainly based in Kapoeta (Eastern Equatoria). The Toposa have longstanding feuds with the Dinka from which the SPLM/A draws its main support. |
New Variables from Meta-Analysis
Purpose
| Purpose: | The main reason for the government to ally with the Toposa were the ethnic tensions between the Toposa and the Dinka, which the government sought to exploit by arming the Toposa (Small Arms Survey 2007). |
| Relative Benefit(s) of PGM Use | unknown |
Treatment of Civilians
| Treatment of Civilians: | On several occasions, the Toposa massacred civilians, including Didinga women and children in 2007 (Human Rights Watch 2009), Turkana civilians, and displaced Dinka boys and adolescents. In 1992, they attacked a hospital in Kapoeta together with the army. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, they attacked relief convoys, preventing humanitarian aid to enter the region, and thereby contributed to a famine affecting five million people in southern Sudan. |
| Type(s) of Violence against Civilians: | killing |
Reasons for Membership
| PGM Members Coerced? | no information |
| PGM Members Paid? | no information |
| Reasons for Membership: | |
| PGM Members Killed? | no information |
PGM Size
| Size: |
Weapons and Training
| Weapons and Training: | The Toposa received weapons from the Sudanese Armed forces (Small Arms Survey 2007). |
Organisation
| Organisation: | The Toposa were allied with the Sudanese Armed Forces. The Small Arms Survey names their associated commander/leaders Chief Lokipapa/Brig. Justin Akodo (Small Arms Survey 2007). |
Reference(s) for Meta-Analysis
Evidence
- Examine the evidence for this coding.