Pro-Government Militias
Witdoeke (South Africa)
Basic Group Information
| Name assigned by coder: | no |
| PGM ID Number: | 110 |
| Country: | South Africa |
| Date formed: | May 26, 1986 |
| Accuracy of date formed: | year |
| Details of Formation: | Witdoeke was mentioned for the first time on May 26, 1986 as a conservative Black pro-government group. |
| Date dissolved: | May 10, 1994 |
| Accuracy of date dissolved: | year |
| Details of Termination: | Terminated with inauguration of President Mandela, as then not pro-government anymore. |
| Termination Type(s): | change in government |
Former and Successor Group Information
| Predecessor group(s): | none |
| Successor group(s): | none |
| Private Military Company? | no |
| Former Group? | no |
| Former Armed Group? | NA |
| Former Rebel Group? | NA |
| Former Rebel Group UCDP ID: | none |
| PGM Becomes Rebel Group? | no |
| Successor Rebel Group UCDP ID: | none |
Government Relation, Support, and Training
| Government Relation: | informal (type 1) |
| Created by the Government?: | no information | Main Creating Government Institution: | none |
| Government Link(s): | state (institution) |
| If link to party, name of party: | None |
| Training and Equipment: | yes |
| Shared Information and Joint Operations: | yes |
| Shared Personnel: | no |
| Type(s) of Material Support: | domestic government; plunder and loot |
| State Sponsor(s): | none |
| Other Connection(s): |
Group Characteristics
| Membership: | ethnic; ideology |
| Primary Membership: | ideological |
| Alternative Primary Membership: | no information |
| Location: | Crossroads |
| Force Strength: | [1000, 3000] |
| Target(s): | civilians; unarmed political opposition, government critics |
| Purpose(s): | intimidate political opposition |
Ethnic Characteristics
| Ethnic Target(s): | none |
| Quality of Information for Ethnic Targeting: | not applicable |
| Ethnic Membership: | Blacks (South Africa) |
| Quality of Information for Ethnic Membership: | given |
| Ethnic Purpose: | none |
| Quality of Information for Ethnic Purpose: | not applicable |
Other Information
| Other Information: | The Witdoeke’s name translates as “white handkerchiefs”, “white rag” or “white cloths”. They are called Witdoeke for the white arm and head bands they wear. Sometimes they are referred to as “the fathers,” which is a term widely used in the townships for older conservative blacks. |
New Variables from Meta-Analysis
Purpose
| Purpose: | The main purpose of the group was to do the “dirty work” that the government could not achieve by other means, especially in the realm of burning shacks and relocating its (often refugee) residents. |
| Relative Benefit(s) of PGM Use | deniability of violence |
Treatment of Civilians
| Treatment of Civilians: | Most of the Witdoeke’s actions were directed against residents of squatter camps. They destroyed the squatters’ houses, forcedly relocated them, looted their belongings and assaulted people. One news source reports that in June 1986 they burnt the homes of 35,000 people, and a total of 50 people were killed. Police aided and colluded with the Witdoeke in these actions, and no arrests were made. In one occasion they attacked union members of a mine after having been brought to the mine by mine security personnel by bus. |
| Type(s) of Violence against Civilians: | killing |
Reasons for Membership
| PGM Members Coerced? | no information |
| PGM Members Paid? | no information |
| Reasons for Membership: | Members might be motivated by their rightwing ideology. |
| PGM Members Killed? | no information |
PGM Size
| Size: | A news source from June 1986 speaks of 1,000 Witdoeke members involved in an operation. Another news source mentions 3,000 members in that same month. |
Weapons and Training
| Weapons and Training: | Police supplied the Witdoeke with arms and ammunition, which included grenade throwers. |
Organisation
| Organisation: | The Witdoeke are led by Mr Ngxobongwana. They cooperate and are aided by the police and the army. |
Reference(s) for Meta-Analysis
Evidence
- Examine the evidence for this coding.